Gourevitch book review Essay

Renowned American author and journalist Philip Gourevitch, presents his 1998 ardent and authoritative non-fiction publication titled We wish to inform you that tomorrow we will be killed with our families, stories from Rwanda. New York: Paw Prints. The book chronicles the events in the Rwandan genocide and provides a riveting description of the author’s travel to Rwanda after the genocide and the horrors he encountered. He interviews a number of those who survived the ordeals and gathers the information which he uses to reconstruct their horrifying stories and thus provides a reflection of the genocide. Gourevitch has earned a number of prestigious awards as an appreciation of his highly credible and analytical book. The 1998 National Book Critics Award leads the number of numerous awards that he has managed to scoop. The 1994 Rwandan genocide brought this tiny country in East Africa into the limelight. Gourevitch made follow ups to the 1994 genocide and he gained interest in unearthing the information since he was not getting satisfied by following the happenings from afar. This prompted him to make a number of trips in a period of two years to both Rwanda and its neighbors. It was during his visits to report about the aftermath of the genocide that he published his book. Most of the information that America and most of the western countries have on the genocide is mainly accredited to Gourevitch’s work. The author starts the book by describing Decimation which he describes as â€Å"the killing of every tenth person in a population†. Gourevitch goes further to describe how in the summer of 1994 a series of â€Å"massacres decimated the Republic of Rwanda† (Gourevitch, 1998 p. 1). The author argues that even though the massacre was carried out with machetes, the rate at which it was carried out was staggering. To highlight the seriousness of these killings the author compares them with the Holocaust in which he points out that the massacre was nearly three times deadlier than the Holocaust. He narrates how the government had adopted a new policy in which the Hutu majority was to kill all the Tutsi’s minority with the reasoning being that this would make the world a better place. What followed were cold blooded murders of the Tutsi minority with use of machetes (Gourevitch, 1998). Gourevitch adopts a rather judgmental and snarky tone that is geared towards those who made decisions that in one way or another led to the genocide. He also tackles the root problems that sparked the mass killings in this small country. The author in his logical thinking about the root cause of the genocide argues that the colonial history of Rwanda was a major contributor to the genocide. Gourevitch argues that the tribal rivalry between the Hutu majority and the Tutsi minority can be traced back to the Belgium regime which colonized Rwanda. The author points out that â€Å"Belgium itself was a nation divided along ethnic lines, in which the Francophone Walloon minority,† ruled the country (Gourevitch, 1998 p. 58). The regime while in Rwanda fostered the minority Tutsi elites and portrayed the Hutu’s as a downtrodden ethnic race just useful as the workforce. This would obviously leave a bad taste to the majority Hutu group towards the minority Tutsi group. The extent for this hate was clearly highlighted at the rate with which the killings took place which the author says were the â€Å"most efficient mass killing since Hiroshima and Nagasaki† (Gourevitch, 1998, p. 1). Gourevitch presents this book in such a way that it is highly critical of the lack of intervention from Western governments and the United Nations forces, who he claims just stood by and watched as the killings took place. The Belgians and the French are blamed for their complicity and also the author portrays these countries as some that aided in reinforcing their own senses of impunity. One of the most disturbing truths in the book that the author reveals is that those who had died knew they were going to die. The author tells of how â€Å"it was announced on radio, it was in the newspapers, people spoke of it openly† (p. 18). This use of the media to propagate the killings is also to be blamed since it acted as a focal point in the genocide. Theda Skocpol a renowned sociologist and political scientist, tries to offer some light as to why violence may tend to occur in a political system. She mainly takes her ideas from the Marxist class conflict in which she mainly argues from the rural agrarian and state conflicts. The author of STATES AND SOCIAL REVOLUTIONS: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China aims to offer some explanations by employing both the â€Å"Marxist scholarship and recent social science theories about revolution† (Skocpol, 2007 p. 35). In her book she argues that France, Russia and China are all successful revolutions and even though they are quite a number of differences there seems to be a pattern that is distinctive of the three revolutions. Skocpol argues that a change in a social system will quite often lead to grievances and thus the emergence of group interests with the effective potential of collective mobilization. This as she points out will lead to the emergence of mass based movements that may have the purpose of overthrowing an entire social order. She argues that this revolutionary movement will fight and in case it wins it will establish its own authority (Skocpol, 2007 p. 14-15). This can be paralleled to what happened in Rwanda where the Hutu had grievances against the minority Tutsi and thus embarked on actions that were geared towards changing an entire social order with the belief that by exterminating the Tutsi people they could make the world better place† (Gourevitch, 1998 p. 6). The author in this book tries hard to prove that it was a genocide and he even asserts his position on the severity of this matter by reminiscing of how he read that â€Å"the United States had decided for the first time in its history to use the word genocide to describe what happened† (Gourevitch, 1998 p. 7). Gourevitch in this book only provides antecedents rather that clear cut answers and therefore the satisfaction of the book is not quenched. Gourevitch’s book is mainly geared towards criticizing the response of the international community in responding and averting the genocide and his anger cannot be hidden and this leads to him only presenting one side of the story instead of being neutral. The book is extremely critical of the west and the United Nation which the author uses sarcasm to depict how the Rwandans never thought the UN soldiers knew how to shoot in order to quell the killings but after a while they were showed their prowess in shooting dogs which were eating corpses in the streets. However, the atrocities that took place in Rwanda are still capable of happening anywhere else and considering the fact that they means used were not highly sophisticated just shows how if such a genocide would ever take place again in the world then the results would be highly catastrophic. The author does a good job in depicting the genocide and his highly analytical technique of even going back to how the two tribes in contention, interacted leaves us with room to understand clearly how the genocide came to be. References: Gourevitch, P (1998). We wish to inform you that tomorrow we will be killed with our families: stories from Rwanda. New York: Paw Prints Skocpol, T (2007). States and social revolutions: a comparative analysis of France, Russia and China. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007

Human behavior in Late adulthood stage Essay

The paper will be focusing on the stages of psychosocial development specifically that of the Later Adulthood Stage. Though this stage of adulthood does not share the same significance to the other developmental stages in adulthood, especially to the earlier stages, at least in terms of how the individual sees his or her world in the context of one’s closing days of life and vice versa. Nevertheless, the Late Adulthood Stage remains of utmost significance for the reason that it holds one crucial aspect in the final development stage of an adult: the integrity of the ego. It must be noted at this point that the ego in the Late Adulthood Stage has already absorbed within the span of the individual’s life processes and life in general a considerable degree of experience. What remains in this stage are the radiations of past experiences that have not withered away with the forgetfulness of human memory, as well as the individual’s reformed perceptions of his or her world that have adapted to the series of changes in one’s environment and that have also shaped the very structure of the environment where one dwells in. A look into some of the significant details of this stage reveals the weight of this particular phase in contrast to the other stages in adulthood whereby the unique strands of psychosocial precepts that properly belong to this stage identifies it as more than just a culminating phase. Theoretical backgrounds In Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development, the Late Adult Stage summarizes its major tasks in the development of the adult in terms of introspection. This is primarily because this phase is essentially the stage wherein the individual is only able to perform fewer activities in contrast to the early years of one’s life where the person is actively participating, to a certain extent, in either leisure or work. Whereas younger people constantly interact with their surroundings and with other individuals, older people who belong to the last stage of human development are, in many cases, physically unable to meet the necessities required by leisure and work. For the most part, although the aged people can barely enjoin themselves in these physically challenging activities, the Later Adulthood stage in Erikson’s theory tells us that these individuals spend most of their time instead on recollecting in their memory the experiences they had in the early chapters of their lives. Thus, as one can observe among the elderly, their acts of relating stories of previous meddling with past events and persons reveal one aspect of human introspection. It manifests their attempt, at the very least, to cope with their physical inability or lacking in terms of mobility by contemplating on whatever is remaining in their memory. More importantly, the Later Adulthood stage highlights the inevitable fact in human life: death. As with the aged people, the wisdom they have acquired in their many endeavors during their younger days all point them to the inescapable fact of death thereby insinuating a sense of fear in their minds. As this fact is instilled in their thoughts, the elderly are eventually placed in a rather uncomfortable situation as their days are drawn closer to its closing chapters. This is the point wherein their views on both life and death are further defined by themselves, testing their maturity and emotional capability to accept such fact and to acquire the sufficient integrity and belief in their selves so as not to succumb to the fear of dying. Robert Havighurst, in his perception on the developmental tasks in the life of the individual, points our attention to his interpretation on the later maturity stage of the individual. He asserts that after the time of retirement from one’s occupation, the individual eventually undergoes several adjustments in the sense that the person begins to adapt a new lifestyle that fits the conditions that beset the individual. These conditions, especially after finally closing the window for a previous occupation, are reflected in many ways. A few of these conditions include relocating to a smaller house or the reduction in one’s income among many others. These circumstances ultimately brings changes, either drastic or gradual, to the living conditions in the life of the person that one is in turn prompted to realign one’s manner of living with new measures. In essence, Havighurst suggests that the elderly are more after the attempt at â€Å"holding on† to life rather than the actual seizing of the things that life has to offer. That is, the state of life of the elderly can be seen as one that is inclined to â€Å"maintain† life or the things that one already has in life rather than the expansion of it. To be taught of news ways of living entails not only the adoption of new approaches in dealing with the necessities brought about by age and one’s physical deterioration. It also entails the idea that these elderly people are bound to attempt at putting more effort in â€Å"holding on† to life, quite apart from the idea that they ought to broaden their perception of the world and their perception of both life and death. In the context of the theories that revolve around the analysis on the stages of human development in terms of the psychosocial perspective as well as the patterns of behavior exhibited by the elderly, we can fairly extract the idea as hypothesis that these patterns of behavior are the results of the developed perceptions of the elderly with the further realization of death or, at the very least, the deterioration of one’s health and living conditions. Methodology The participants in the interview are composed of 20 non-working elderly from the male and female genders with age 60 and above randomly chosen. All of the participants can understand and speak the English language, their primary language, and are residents of the United States of America. The religious orientation of the participants is Roman Catholicism as well as they are financially dependent on the insurance money they receive every month, apart from the medical assistance they are able to acquire from it. Moreover, the participants are now living on their own, with their families living in their respective homes separate from their elderly.

Drunk Driver

A huge problem In the world today Is people drlnklng and driving. when someone Is under the Influence of alcohol they really don't know the right choices from the wrong ones. More times then not those people make the wrong choice to get behind the wheel of a car. Just because someone is drunk doesn't mean its an automatic thing that they will crash but it does increase the chances by quite a bit. No matter what age you are, a new licensed driver being 16 to an elderly man being 80, this Is always going to be bad and frowned upon by anyone.Drunk driving is one of the main causes of death in every country. Many people have to live with themselves knowing they killed one of there passengers while they were drunk. Its known that a lot of the time the drunk driver will not die because the effects of the alcohol. It loosens the muscles and keeps the person very calm making that person not die. Don't get me wrong, they do die sometimes but I Just cant Imagine having to live with myself know ing I killed someone because I made a horrible decision to drink and drive.This could lead up to people ruining there lives in remorse and it could possibly even lead up to that drunk driver committing suicide. There is a lot of ways for someone to avoid drunk driving. There's many different things you could do then get behind a wheel of a car when you are completely drunk and can barely walk, nevermind drive a car. If you are planning on drinking with a group of friends you should always pick a designated driver. This helps because that person will be sober for that night and will be able to drive all the runks to where they need to be.This saves lives numerous amounts of times. Another way you can avoid drunk driving is If you don't have a designated driver then you can call a taxi. They will always get you to where you need to be but with a charge. Money shouldn't matter though when lives are on the line. Yearly the amount of driving-impaired causalities has decreased. This Is a good thing but we should try as a country to really stop this from occurring at all. Most deaths from alcohol occur in the time frame of 12A.M to 3A. M. These times show that people are probably leaving a bar or a party at this time and decide to drive. Well that's the wrong choice. Lite is all about choices and you need to make sure you make the right ones. Being drunk doesn't make that to easy but you need to really try to make sure your doing to right thing. especially when you are under the influence. Drunk Driver By rinachand A huge problem in the world today is people drinking and driving.When someone is under the influence of alcohol they really don't know the right choices from the wrong ge you are, a new licensed driver being 16 to an elderly man being 80, this is always sometimes but I Just cant imagine having to live with myself knowing I killed someone Another way you can avoid drunk driving is if you don't have a designated driver then of driving-impaired causalities ha s decreased. This is a good thing but we should try Life is all about choices and you need to make sure you make the right ones. Being right thing, especially when you are under the influence.

Scenario Consider the cross cultural management implications for an Essay

Scenario Consider the cross cultural management implications for an organisation from your home country setting up a satellite operation in another country (of your choice) - Essay Example It is observed that cross-cultural management issues spring from a range of business contexts. Giving example of an individual firm, Clarke (2007, p.197) observed that the management team from a foreign parent company must seek to understand that the local workforce especially those from the host country, may require different organization structure and Human resource practices. This is essentially since it will ensure that the working personnel are not infringed on their rights as workers but are given ample room for expression. To this end, Deresky (2008, p. 47) noted that in cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&As), achieving the expected synergies regularly vary depending on the existent business structures and procedures that encompass both cultures in a more balanced way. Further, cross-cultural joint business ventures or alliances between two or more firms also demand a cultural compromise. This will ensure that the involved firms have a particular cultural orientation tha t emerges after sacrificial of the individual cultures (Fougà ¨re & Moulettes 2007, p. 12). This means therefore that the diversity of the workforce should be managed properly to ensure optimum productivity instead of leaving the differences show. Moreover, cultural sensitivity is also paramount especially if a firm needs to sell successfully to foreign consumers. In other words, it would be recommended for companies that sell to foreign customers to be culturally sensitive adaptations to various products, services, marketing and advertising (Magnusson et al., 2008, p. 191). Parboteeah et al. (2005, p. 91) observed that differences that exist in particular firm’s organization and decision making practices results directly from the geographical region in which it has evolved as well as the cultural background that it encompasses. This will demand an equal understanding of

Microfinance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Microfinance - Essay Example regular banks, in most cases because they are unable to offer sufficient collateral.† (Gert van Maanen, 2) There are two schools of thought regarding the entire industry of Microfinance: the first advocates non-profit lending, while the other takes the opposite view- that for-profit. In this regard, this essay is written to present arguments that profit microfinance institutions (MFIs) are better off by pursuing profits making them more sustainable than non-profit MFIs. This paper will argue that by microfinance institutions (MFIs) pursuing their own interest (profits) this is the only way to be sustainable & will lead to more outreach & more the greater good for all impoverished people despite the fact MFIs are for-profit. Years of research indicate that for-profit MFIs are more sustainable than non-profit microfinance institutions because they have higher growth rates, access to a larger pool of funding and are much more profitable. According to Global Microfinance Forum (1), â€Å"profit-maximizing MFIs run just as normal businesses do, making enough profit to fund themselves and benefit owners and investors.† For-profit MFI’s pursue profits because they are market driven. They could rely on donor funds in their initial stages, but unlike non-profit MFI’s, they specifically stipulate that their goal is to be financially self-sufficient—the ability to rely on themselves financially from within the institution. Hence, by gaining profits they want to grow, expand the number of institutions; lower all possible costs and ultimately reach the most amounts of people possible. By relying on themselves, for-profit MFIs are sustainable. The opportunities for profit MFIs are greater in terms of availability and accessibility for investor capital. In addition, with their own sources of funds, potentials for expanding their target market are vast. Supporters for nonprofit MFIs stipulate that these institutions solicit funds from donors, grants, government

Little Red Riding Hood and the Wolf from Roald Dahl's Essay

Little Red Riding Hood and the Wolf from Roald Dahl's - Essay Example Consequently, she is able to be a mistress of her own, daring all kinds of situations, without outside help. She is also seen seen stripping herself of the â€Å"silly† red riding hood that was presented to her by an over-protective society (Dahl, 40). She is depicted as a young woman who has finally got rid of her self-image of vulnerability, imposed upon her by the society. Dahl has peripherally sticked to the original version of the story of Little Red Riding Hood until by the end. But by imparting the authorship of restoration to Little Red Riding Hood herself, he (Dahl) has banished the outside help that came to rescue her in the original story (40). The uniqueness of this story unlike many other popular fairy tales is in that it has always been open to new interpretations. There are many versions of the story already available and Dahl's attempt at a new interpretation hence seems to be becoming of the spirit of the story. Dahl has begun his story from the middle without introducing the heroine, Little Red Riding Hood (36). It is the wolf instead who takes center stage of the narrative (Dahl, 36). The story is reversed in an act mindful of the time that has passed since the story was first told. In other words, Dahl seems to believe that it is high time Little Red Riding Hood realizes the betrayal of the wolf and be prepared to handle it. So she is seen redrafting her original queries to the wolf once she arrives at her grand mother's hut (Dahl, 40). Parallel to this, it can be seen that the villainy of the wolf did not get updated in time (Dahl, 40). He is practicing his centuries old trick while Little Red Riding Hood has grown into the self-confident lass that the author meets later in the woods (Dahl, 40). The author (Dahl) has used Little Red Riding Hood material as a metaphor that tells the story of the empowerment of modern woman. She is once and for all breaking the stereotyped molds that the society has been putting her in since centuries (Dahl). She turns to be a little surprise for all as to the author (Dahl) of the story and he says, â€Å"But what a change! No cloak of red, No silly hood upon her head.† (40). Dahl has also got rid of the moralizing elements of the story-the dictate of the mother that the girl should not talk to strangers, and that she should not stray from her path. In Dahl's version, it does not matter whether Little Red Riding Hood talked to strangers on the way or whether she strayed a little from the forest path and picked some wild flowers. Windling has opined that this story, now told as a â€Å"cautonary tale†, meant to be a warning to the girls who disobeyed their parents' advice, had originally been a tale of â€Å"female initiative and maturation.† Windling has explained how this story was meant to be one of female initiation into sexual experiences. He has added that in the â€Å"Victorian middle-class† anxieties turned this tale into a moralizing one that t ells how led by her own â€Å"sensual drives†, Little Red Riding Hood fails to obey her mothers' cautions and nearly looses her â€Å"virtue†. On the other hand, in Dahl's tale, it might have been these very sensual experiences of straying from the prescribed path that could have given her the courage to put three bullets into the wolf's head, in the end (Dahl, 40). Dahl's Riding Hood is a woman who has sexual freedom and fearlessness. As Windling noted, in the original story, the wolf is a ware wolf, who can take on the shape of

Physics of cheerleading Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Physics of cheerleading - Term Paper Example According to Newton’s law of reaction, when two objects act together the force on one object becomes the same as the magnitude but in opposite direction to the other. Studies reveal that, when two objects act together, there are several forces. This is because, one object tends to exert force on the other one which acts upon it hence the reaction forces defined in the third law of motion. The action forces always accelerate towards the earth while the reaction moves away from the earth. This can be presented in an equation with variables in the normal force which acts on both forces as: The speed of rotation into the air can increase or decrease when the distance of mass and axis is changed. When performing a stunt, the cheerleader may not gain momentum if on the ground since velocity and position are zero. Incase one jumps to decrease the distance between the body and axis of rotation, then the angular momentum remains constant since there is no outer torque which has taken place in the radius of X. Today, most of the cheerleaders are expected to poses athletic shape with gymnastic foundation. So as to gain the force required to spin into the air without anybody increasing or decreasing the momentum while in the air. According to Hewitt, Paul and Wolf (2008, p 136), the main principle behind physics of cheerleading is to set up a good weight allotment in the stunts, for example in pyramids. This is created by putting a great number of people at the bottom than at the top. The strong members of the group form the base while the lighter members are put on the top. This makes it possible for the team to perform stunt that involve holding and tossing the cheerleader up in the air. Stunt depends on having the right number of people forming the top and bottom in the pyramid. In stunt, balancing is important so as to help in supporting the weight exerted at top of the

Reponse paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reponse paper - Essay Example She goes and does not locate the cat. She passes by the reception she encounter the padrone who makes her feel small yet of supreme importance. However, something changes since when she goes back to the room, the husband pays attention as the American girl chatters about her boyish appearance and her desire to possess a cat. The husband distasteful orders her to find something to read. This essay is a response addressing the connotation short story â€Å"Cat in The Rain† by Hemingway. ‘Cat in the rain’ is portrayal of women’s status in a male dominated society. The story is pertinent because it displays the women’s desire for freedom do what they want as opposed to what is expected of them by the husband or the society. Gender roles and gender specific expectations and issues have long been developed by patriarchal society to maintain a control over them. Indeed, even the husbands rarely recognized the interests of the women. Hemingway’s story highlights the women’s desire to be free demonstrated by the great desire of the American Wife to free the cat and own it, which depicts their yearning to be free. Cat therefore, symbolizes women’s status that at all times strives to conform to the demands of their husband. ‘It isn’t any fun to be a poor kitty out in the rain’ (Hemingway Web) reflects the nostalgia of the woman to flee from her vigilant and domineering husband. The protagonist in the story is first addressed as ‘American wife’ and then as ‘American girl’ that subtly defines the difference between a married girl and girl who can pursue their happiness as they deem within the broader framework of patriarchal society. This depicts marriage as a form of confinement for women. Indeed, social conditioning significantly affects marital bond and makes women rebel against the restrictions that make

Threats confronting the U.S. in 2030 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Threats confronting the U.S. in 2030 - Assignment Example According to the report, demand for these resources will likely grow by over 40% owing to the rapidly expanding global population, it is postulated that these demand will become difficult and in some places impossible to address. Shortages are likely to be caused by a variety of factors that are already in play today such as rapid negative climate change and the possibility of an energy crisis resulting from dying up of oil and other natural energy deposits. These changes are expected to affect the Middle East and Africa especially in regard to water, these regions already have water problems today and it is thus not difficult to predict that without drastic policy changes both therein and globally, the trend will continue to its logical conclusion; which is the water and food crisis. Another of the issues that are to be found in the report has to do with economic revolution in which the dominance of traditionally superior nations and blocks such as the US and EU may challenge. America may not necessarily be the economic super power it has been since the end of the cold war by the year 2030. The report suggests that China, owing to its rapid per-capita growth and industrialization, could overtake the USA to become the world’s leading financial powerhouse. The EU could also suffer from the possible withdrawal of Greece in the aftermath of the pre-2008 financial crisis from which it is still trying to recover, nevertheless, the report suggests that should Greece decide to withdraw, that could be disastrous for the bloc and may even result in a collapse. Recent history and current events have shown how the use of communication technology has enabled people to challenge governments, especially despotic ones and resulted in the toppling of several autocrats suc h as Egypt’s Mubarak and Gadaffi. While the reports predicts citizens may have more power to reach such ends in

Devising Safety Plans Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Devising Safety Plans - Assignment Example Last week, he punched her in the ribs a couple of times, resulting in bruising, which she revealed to you.She fears for her safety, though she is not yet ready to move out or leave him. The situation presented in the case is slightly complex and tricky to any counselor. Refusal or unwillingness by Jeannine to leave Robert despite series of abuse creates a serious uphill in the designing of an effective safety plan. However, it is still the responsibility of a counselor to design a workable safety plan to protect the abused client (APA). In that line, safety plan for Jeannine can begin with assessment of the situation and concerns of the client, that have to covering the extent and magnitude of the past abuses and resolutions. The next step is to persuade Jeannine to leave home with counselor providing the alternative home while assuring the client about returning to Robert after some times of treatment (Joiner et al., 2009). The reason for devising the above safety plan relates to the fact that the client’s life is in danger and must be away from the abuser. Assuring the client about returning home is to create a give-take situation to address the unwillingness to leave Robert and still achieve safety. An alternative safety plan would involve reporting to police to initiate arrest and lead to incarceration of the abuser (Jaffe & Diamond, 2011). This cannot work well in the situation considering the seemingly close attachment of the abused to the abuser that can escalate or worsen crisis experienced by the client. Scenario 2: Maria states she met Justin at a party a couple months ago. They have gone out a few times. Justin has never been to Marias house but she has been to his apartment; client states she usually meets him at a restaurant or club. Their relationship had advanced somewhat physically, but never to a sexual culmination. Imagine

Discussion Board Post Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 39

Discussion Board Post Response - Essay Example Formative evaluation can be used to provide feedback for learning and consequently serve as the basis for improvements (Duers and Brown, 2009) and should therefore be conducted as the project progresses. I concur that summative evaluation is conducted at the end of an instructional unit (Duers and Brown, 2009) and can thus be conducted at the end of your practicum project. McKimm and Swanwick (2009) posits that objectives outlines what the student seeks to achieve at the end of a project. In this regard, I agree with your objectives in achieving your goal. Your objectives clearly shows what you will achieve at the end of the practicum project. For instance, you assert that you will be able to present findings to the executive system board for approval at the end of your project. I also concur with the other aspects of your discussion such as your methodology and evaluation plan. Your choice to utilize PFCC as your methodology will help achieve the projected outcomes based on findings from other methodical investigations, thus I agree with your methodology. It is only through formative and summative approaches to evaluation that you will be able to get feedback from your colleagues and also at the end of your project (Duers and Brown, 2009). In this respect, I agree with your evaluation

Design of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems Essay Example for Free

Design of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems Essay Storage Tanks are the tanks in which flammable and combustible liquids are stored. The storage tanks should be constructed of steel in case they are constructed above grounds. The non-combustible substance can be used for the construction if it is used to store a combustible liquid. The material used for the construction must be that helps the tank to be protected against the fire. In one of the storage tank fires broke out at the island of Palau Merimau, Singapore and the fire started catching tankage containing petroleum, motor gasoline and diesel product. Despite the size of fire and adverse logistics, fire fighting efforts were successful in controlling the fire. This require operational and design engineering considerations, proper fire fighting strategy, prefire and emergency response plans, fire water management and fixed/semifixed system. A permanent water supply, of sufficient volume, duration, pressure, required to properly operate the fire fighting equipment shall be made available as soon as combustible materials accumulate and in the same way underground waters are to be provided, installed and made available for use as early as possible at the place of fire. In case were fixed water protection system is not installed with the tank with flammable or combustible liquids the floating roof to cover on liquid which helps to protect the fire to be broke out. Most fires in this design of tank burn only at the seal and are usually easily extinguished. Tanks with floating roofs are not likely to be involved in serious fires. This is because there is far less liquid surface is exposed to the fire. When storage tanks are not equipped with fixed fire protection then it must contain a stable liquid storage at a pressure 17kPa (gauge). The tanks containing flammable liquids should be normally kept closed for protection of unless the tank is venting. Where drainage facilities are provided to drain water from dike areas, efforts should be made to prevent flammable liquids from entering into any natural resources as it constitute fire hazard. REFERENCE Referred to sites:1. http://www. ofm. gov. on. ca/english/Publications/Guidelines/part4/4commen5. asp SECTION 4. 3 TANK STORAGE Subsection 4. 3. 1. Design, Construction and Use of Storage Tanks 2. http://www. osha. gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/subpartf. html Fire Protection and Prevention DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE TO THIS SUBPART Â §1926. 155 3. http://www. ofm. gov. on. ca/english/Publications/Guidelines/part4/4commen5. asp SECTION 4. 3 TANK STORAGE Dated 4th August 2007

Projet de thèse professionnelle

Projet de thà ¨se professionnelle Projet de thà ¨se professionnelle  «Faut-il rà ©glementer et contrà ´ler davantage les entreprises qui communiquent sur leurs engagements responsables, afin de pouvoir dà ©celer celles qui pratiquent le Greenwashing ? » Il existe trois catà ©gories de communication: Les deux premià ¨res font parties de la communication externe cest-à  -dire celle qui sadresse à   lenvironnement de lentreprise. la communication dite institutionnelle: Elle met en avant les engagements et les valeurs de lentreprise. Elle permet de sensibiliser le public à   des enjeux de socià ©tà © importants, et parfois mà ªme au soutien de grandes causes. La plupart du temps, les agences qui rà ©alisent ces campagnes publicitaires le font à   titre gracieux: on parle de campagne  «pro bono » (bà ©nà ©vole). la communication dite  «produit/service »: Issue de la stratà ©gie marketing, elle vise à   promouvoir un produit ou un service, soit directement auprà ¨s des consommateurs, soit indirectement auprà ¨s des prescripteurs tels que les journalistes. Ces deux types de communication font parties de la communication publicitaire. Ces communications sont destinà ©es à   porter à   la connaissance dun public lexistence dun produit, dun service (communication  «produit/service) ou dune action (communication institutionnelle). Elles visent à   susciter ou à   accroà ®tre le dà ©sir dacquà ©rir ce produit, dutiliser ce service ou de modifier un comportement. La dernià ¨re catà ©gorie de communication se diffà ©rencie des autres. Elle na pas les mà ªmes cibles. la communication dite interne: Dirigà ©e vers les salarià ©s de lentreprise. Ce type de communication consiste à   informer et expliquer de manià ¨re optimum lenvironnement qui entoure les salarià ©s, les guider autant que possible, et crà ©er un climat de confiance et dappartenance à   lentreprise afin de maximiser les performances de lorganisation. Le secteur emploie aujourdhui prà ¨s de 70 000 personnes en France; les entreprises lont bien compris, la communication reprà ©sente un facteur de croissance à ©conomique. Dans le cadre de cette thà ¨se, nous allons nous concentrer davantage sur la communication qui nous intà ©resse, celle dite institutionnelle. On constate que le secteur de la communication a du retard face à   sa responsabilità © environnementale, contrairement aux autres secteurs, mais il est en train de rattraper son retard, comme nous pourront le voir par la suite. II/ Justification de la problà ©matique Intà ©ressà ©e depuis mon plus jeune à ¢ge par là ©cologie puis plus rà ©cemment par le dà ©veloppement durable, il à ©tait à ©vident pour moi que ma thà ¨se professionnelle porte sur ce sujet. Étant en majeure Marketing et Communication, jai choisi en tant que sujet large la communication des entreprises sur le dà ©veloppement durable. Communiquer sur une dà ©marche de dà ©veloppement durable permet aujourdhui aux entreprises damà ©liorer (ou de maintenir) leur image. En effet, de nos jours, les entreprises sont trà ¨s soucieuses de limage quelles reflà ¨tent dans lesprit des consommateurs. Cette image est omniprà ©sente en communication dentreprise (interne et externe). Elle permet de và ©hiculer rapidement et efficacement un message synthà ©tique et constitue une rà ©elle valeur ajoutà ©e dans la communication. Depuis quelques annà ©es, avec la mà ©diatisation des dà ©sastres environnementaux (tels que la dà ©forestation ou le rà ©chauffement climatique) et les rà ©sultats dà ©tudes scientifiques alarmants sur là ©puisement de nos ressources naturelles , nous assistons à   une prise de conscience de la part des pouvoirs publics, de certaines entreprises mais aussi des citoyens. Ces derniers deviennent de plus en plus soucieux du sort de notre planà ¨te, mais aussi plus critiques face à   notre mode de vie, notre manià ¨re de produire et de consommer. Les mentalità ©s changent, et les achats responsables se multiplient. De plus en plus de personnes se disent prà ªtes à   payer plus cher un produit issu du commerce à ©quitable, ou du moins en accord avec la nature et l‘à ©thique. Ces personnes sont à   lorigine dune nouvelle faà §on de penser et dacheter: on les appelle les  «consomacteurs ». Les entreprises lont compris, actuellement, pour garder leur image ou lamà ©liorer, il faut quelles soient respectueuses de lenvironnement et soucieuses de son avenir. Beaucoup dentre elles ont donc adoptà © une stratà ©gie de communication verte revendiquant ainsi leurs engagements pour le respect de lenvironnement et pour une socià ©tà © durable. Nà ©anmoins, se forment deux catà ©gories dentreprises qui communiquent: celles qui ont rà ©ellement pris conscience de lurgence de cet engagement et qui ont concrà ¨tement modifià © leur manià ¨re de produire et de consommer. Le meilleur exemple que jai trouvà © pour illustrer cette catà ©gorie est celui de lentreprise industrielle Lafargue, qui, depuis 30 ans poursuit une politique environnementale ambitieuse en intà ©grant lenvironnement au coeur de la stratà ©gie du groupe comme un facteur de compà ©titività ©. celles qui profitent de leffet de mode du dà ©veloppement durable, pour en faire leur publicità ©, sans pour autant prendre dengagements rà ©els dans cedomaine. Elles pratiquent ce que lon appelle le greenwashing (à ©coblanchiment en Franà §ais). Cette dernià ¨re catà ©gorie dentreprises dà ©crà ©dibilise totalement le concept du dà ©veloppement durable ainsi que ses enjeux urgents. Les consommateurs ne savent plus qui ment et qui dit la và ©rità ©. Certains pensent mà ªme que le concept de dà ©veloppement durable est purement commerciale (un peu comme Halloween en France). Face à   ce phà ©nomà ¨ne, on peut alors se demander: Faudrait-il rà ©glementer et contrà ´ler davantage les entreprises qui communiquent sur leurs engagements dans le dà ©veloppement durable, afin de pouvoir dà ©celer celles qui pratiquent le greenwashing? III/ Concepts, mots-clà ©s Plusieurs mots clà ©s nà ©cessitent des dà ©finitions et explications: Communication: La communication (externe) dà ©signe lensemble des moyens mis en oeuvre pour diffuser des informations sur un produit dans une optique de vente. Malgrà © là ©volution des termes ( «rà ©clame » dans les annà ©es 1930,  «publicità ©Ã‚ » dans les annà ©es 1970 et  «communication » aujourdhui), le but de la communication a toujours à ©tà © de faire vendre des produits, des services, pour le compte dannonceurs et toujours afin de gà ©nà ©rer un retour sur investissement. Elle sert à ©galement à   augmenter la notorià ©tà © de produits, dorganisations, dentreprises et à   promouvoir leurs images. Son rà ´le est ,par consà ©quent, avant tout à ©conomique. Elle permet ainsi aux entreprises de crà ©er de la richesse et des emplois en dà ©veloppant leur notorià ©tà © et leurs dà ©bouchà ©s commerciaux sur des marchà ©s de plus en plus vaste et concurrentiels. Dà ©veloppement durable: Terme issu de lexpression anglophone  «sustainable development ». Selon la Commission Mondiale sur lEnvironnement et le Dà ©veloppement, le dà ©veloppement durable peut se dà ©finir de manià ¨re consensuelle comme  «la capacità © des gà ©nà ©rations prà ©sentes à   satisfaire leurs besoins sans compromettre laptitude des gà ©nà ©rations futures à   couvrir leurs propres besoins. » Cette dà ©finition donnà ©e en 1987 manque de prà ©cision. Le dà ©veloppement durable est une alternative au modà ¨le de dà ©veloppement actuel (excà ¨s, gà ¢chis, surexploitation, surconsommation). Face à   lurgence de la crise à ©cologique et de là ©puisement des ressources, seule lidà ©e dune croissance à ©conomique en accord avec les principes environnementaux permettra à   lhomme de survivre durablement dans des conditions favorables. Ci-dessous le schà ©ma rà ©capitulatif du dà ©veloppement durable autour de ses trois piliers: le Social, lÉconomique et lÉcologique. Le dà ©veloppement durable repose sur un certain nombre de principes: La prà ©caution, la prà ©vention et lanticipation (mà ªme en labsence de certitude scientifique) La solidarità © (sociale, gà ©ographique et gà ©nà ©rationnelle) Le dialogue ( avec lensemble des  «parties prenantes ») Là ©thique et la bonne gouvernance ( transparence de lentreprise, interne et externe) La responsabilità © (par exemple le concept du pollueur/ payeur) Greenwashing: Terme anglophone pouvant à ªtre traduit par  «verdissement dimage », mais il est à ©galement appelà ©  «Ãƒ ©co-blanchiment » ou  «maquillage vert ». Le Greenwashing consiste à   mettre en avant les efforts dune entreprise en termes de dà ©veloppement durable et de protection de lenvironnement, alors mà ªme que ces efforts ne sont pas rà ©els. Ce terme trouve son origine dans la contraction des mots  «green » (vert) et  «brainwashing » (lavage de cerveau). Il a à ©tà © employà © pour la premià ¨re fois dans le titre dun article de la revue  «Mother Jones » au dà ©but des annà ©es 1990. Le terme est aussi utilisà © pour dà ©signer le rapprochement dune entreprise avec lONU dans le cadre du Global Compact. Publicità © mensongà ¨re: Selon le Code du Droit des Affaires,  «la publicità © mensongà ¨re est une dà ©formation de la publicità © commerciale qui prà ©sente le produit ou le bien à   vendre, prestation de services à   accomplir, sous un jour trompeur et inexact en vue dattirer ladhà ©sion de la clientà ¨le. » Il faut distinguer la publicità © mensongà ¨re de la publicità © trompeuse. Une publicità © est mensongà ¨re lorsquelle contient une information fausse, alors quune publicità © de nature à   induire en erreur (interaction ou omission de certains à ©là ©ments dans le message)est trompeuse pour le consommateur (mà ªme si elle ne comporte pas de fausses informations). La publicità © mensongà ¨re ou trompeuse constitut un dà ©lit depuis la loi du 2 Juillet 1963. Cette loi a par la suite à ©tà © remplacà ©e par larticle 44 de la Loi Royer du 27 Dà ©cembre 1973, afin dà ©tendre le champ dapplication du texte. Dà ¨s que la publicità © mensongà ¨re ou trompeuse est communiquà ©e au public, il y a dà ©lit (il est instantanà ©e). Nà ©anmoins, pour quil y ait infraction ,il faut dabord une và ©ritable publicità ©, cest-à  -dire des actes destinà ©s à   attirer lattention du public, soit par voie à ©crite, soit par voie orale ou visuelle. Publicità ©: Forme de communication cherchant à   attirer lattention dun public prà ©alablement ciblà © (consommateur, usager, utilisateur, ), dans le but de linciter à   adopter un comportement souhaità © (acte dachat, à ©lection dune personnalità © politique incitation à   là ©conomie dà ©nergie, ) Selon le Code du Droit des Affaires, tout moyen dinformation du public portant sur la composition dun produit constitue une publicità © dà ¨s lors quil accompagne lobjet proposà © et que le consommateur est conduit à   en prendre connaissance pour guider son choix. IV/ Synthà ¨se provisoire de littà ©rature Problà ©matique: Faudrait-il contrà ´ler et rà ©glementer davantage les entreprises qui communiquent sur leurs engagements dans le dà ©veloppement durable, afin de pouvoir dà ©celer celles qui pratiquent le Greenwashing? Face à   cette problà ©matique, plusieurs hypothà ¨ses sont à   poser. Tout dabord, une premià ¨re notion doit à ªtre và ©rifià ©e. Le dà ©veloppement durable est-il un concept acquis par la socià ©tà ©? Les Franà §ais savent-ils le dà ©finir? Ont-ils pris conscience des enjeux quil relà ¨ve? Ho: La notion de dà ©veloppement durable est acquise en France. En 1999, 12 ans aprà ¨s la naissance de ce concept, seuls 9% des Franà §ais donnaient un contenu à   cette notion. Deux ans plus tard, Monoprix et EDF lanà §aient leurs campagnes sur le dà ©veloppement durable. La premià ¨re campagne de sensibilisation  « le dà ©veloppement daccord mais seulement sil est durable » a accà ©là ©rà © le mouvement, 20 % des Franà §ais comprenaient alors ce concept. En 2007, seulement 65% des Franà §ais interrogà ©s à ©taient capables den parler Aujourdhui, en 2010,  «le dà ©veloppement durable » est une expression qui fait partie du langage courant. Selon une enquà ªte rà ©alisà ©e par le Ministà ¨re de lÉcologie, de lÉnergie, du Dà ©veloppement durable et de la Mer, 97% des Franà §ais dà ©clarent avoir dà ©jà   entendu parler de lexpression. Ce fort pourcentage est en partie due à   toute la communication à   ce sujet (campagnes de sensibilisation, crà ©ation dun ministà ¨re dà ©dià © à   lenvironnement, publicità © verte en pleine expansion, ). Pas plus tard quaujourdhui, jai pu constater lampleur que ce concept prend petit à   petit dans la socià ©tà ©. En effet, des dizaines de panneaux publicitaires annoncent la semaine consacrà ©e du 1er au 7 avril, consacrà ©e au dà ©veloppement durable . Voici quelques exemples parmi tant dautres de publicità © que lon peut voir actuellement dans les rues de Paris. Notre premià ¨re hypothà ¨se est và ©rifià ©e. Effectivement, et heureusement, en 2010, la grande majorità © des Franà §ais se prà ©occupent, plus ou moins, de lavenir de notre planà ¨te. Tout le monde sait par exemple que les piles ne se jettent pas à   la poubelle, quon ne laisse pas leau couler quand on se brosse les dents, que la douche vaut mieux quun bain, ou encore quil faut faire une croix sur les fraises en Dà ©cembre. Ces petits gestes du quotidien, les Franà §ais sont de plus en plus nombreux à   les faire. Ils changent leurs comportements et leurs habitudes. Ce changement de mentalità ©, les entreprises lont bien remarquà © et analysà ©. Nous verrons par la suite comment elles sy sont adaptà ©es, alors que la tendance du  «moins consommer, consommer mieux » sinstalle progressivement dans le pays. Maintenant que notre premià ¨re hypothà ¨se est và ©rifià ©e, nous devons chercher à   savoir: existe-t-il dà ©jà   une rà ©glementation et un contrà ´le effectuà © sur la communication publicitaire faà ®tes par les entreprises? Si oui, alors quelle autorità © est compà ©tente? H1: La communication publicitaire des entreprises est rà ©glementà ©e et contrà ´là ©e. Des autorità ©s sont chargà ©es de la bonne application des rà ¨gles. Le secteur de la communication dispose dun encadrement rà ©glementaire. Il existe en France deux grands principes de cet encadrement: la rà ©gulation et lautorà ©gulation. Le premier principe, la rà ©gulation, est dictà © par le cadre là ©gislatif et juridique franà §ais, via les lois. Il doit à ©galement à ªtre conforme à   des lois au niveau europà ©en, appelà ©es directives. On peut par exemple citer la 2006/114/CE qui dà ©finit comme trompeuse  «toute publicità © qui, dune manià ¨re quelconque, y compris sa prà ©sentation, induit en erreur ou est susceptible dinduire en erreur les personnes auxquelles elle sadresse ou quelle touche et qui, en raison de son caractà ¨re trompeur, est susceptible daffecter leur comportement à ©conomique ou qui, pour ces raisons, porte prà ©judice ou est susceptible de porter prà ©judice à   un concurrent ». Le deuxià ¨me principe, lautorà ©gulation, est reprà ©sentà © par le Code de lICC (Chambre Internationale du Commerce). Il sagit des limites qui encadrent la publicità ©, au-delà   des obligations là ©gales, visant à   ce que le consommateur ne soit pas trompà ©, choquà ©, induit en erreur, ou incità © à   reproduire des comportements nocifs, dangereux. Il existe des instances qui ont pour rà ´le dappliquer ces principes et de sassurer de leur bonne exà ©cution. Plusieurs autorità ©s sont compà ©tentes pour rà ©guler la publicità © franà §aise. La premià ¨re et sà »rement la plus importante sappelle lARPP (Autorità © de Rà ©gulation Professionnelle de la Publicità ©). Elle a pour mission de mener une action en faveur dune publicità © loyale, và ©ridique et saine, dans lintà ©rà ªt des consommateurs, du public et des professionnels de la publicità ©. Les contrà ´les de lARPP se font autant avant la diffusion de la publicità © quaprà ¨s. En France, les professionnels savent quil y a des rà ¨gles à   respecter quant à   la manià ¨re de faire une publicità ©. Ces rà ¨gles obà ©issent à   une triple logique danticipation, de concertation et de responsabilisation. Nà ©anmoins, ces rà ¨gles portent uniquement sur le contenu de la publicità ©, et en aucun cas sur les questions relatives à   la promotion du produit ou service. Ce nest pas le cas de toutes les autorità ©s. En effet, le Conseil Paritaire de la Publicità © (CPP), le Conseil de lÉthique Publicitaire (CEP) et le Comità © de rà ©daction sont des instances associà ©s à   lARPP qui gà ¨re toutes rà ©glementations en amont (cest-à  -dire avant la diffusion au public de la publicità ©) Le CEP agit principalement sur les problà ¨mes dordre à ©thique que contiendraient une publicità ©. Le CPP, lui , sert dintermà ©diaire entre l‘ARPP et les associations (qui ont des attentes face au contenu des publicità ©s). Enfin, le Jury de Dà ©ontologie Publicitaire (JPD) contrà ´le les publicità ©s en aval, donc aprà ¨s leur diffusion. Il a pour mission de communiquer les plaintes faà ®tes à   lencontre de publicità ©s et de campagnes dà ©rogeant aux rà ¨gles à ©tablies. Pour finir, lARPP ne reà §oit aucune subvention de la part de lÉtat: elle est complà ¨tement indà ©pendante. La deuxià ¨me instance compà ©tente en matià ¨re de contrà ´le publicitaire est connue: il sagit du Conseil Supà ©rieur de lAudiovisuel (CSA)C‘est un peu la police de la publicità © (et plus gà ©nà ©ralement de l‘audiovisuel). Il sassure du respect par tous les opà ©rateurs des lois et de la rà ©glementation de la communication audiovisuelle en vigueur. Il est en droit de sanctionner ceux qui sont en infraction contrairement à   l‘ARPP qui n‘a qu‘un rà ´le de contrà ´le. Le CSA est une autorità © administrative à ©galement indà ©pendante des pouvoirs publics. Dautres instances secondaires ou indirectes peuvent à ©galement intervenir de temps à   autre face aux entreprises qui ne respecteraient pas les rà ©glementations là ©gales obligatoires dans leurs publicità ©s. (par exemple la direction gà ©nà ©rale de la concurrence, de la consommation et de la rà ©pression des fraudes ou encore des associations chargà ©es de la protection des consommateurs). De nombreuses recommandations ont à ©tà © crà ©Ãƒ ©s concernant le domaine du dà ©veloppement durable. La dernià ¨re a à ©tà © validà ©e le 18 juin 2009 par le Conseil dAdministration de lARPP: il sagit des nouvelles rà ¨gles de dà ©ontologie publicitaire, qui ont à ©tà © rà ©Ãƒ ©crites conformà ©ment à   lengagement pris dans la Charte pour une publicità © à ©co-responsable signà ©e en avril 2008 avec les pouvoirs publics. Ces rà ¨gles se rà ©sument en deux axes: quand il y a une promesse relative au dà ©veloppement durable: ne pas induire le consommateur en erreur. dans tous les cas, ne pas reprà ©senter de comportements contraires aux principes communà ©ment admis du dà ©veloppement durable. La premià ¨re hypothà ¨se est và ©rifià ©e, comme on la vu ci-dessus, le secteur de la publicità © est bel et bien rà ©glementer. Pourtant, le Greenwashing est un phà ©nomà ¨ne bien prà ©sent. On a à ©galement constater que ces instances sont toutes indà ©pendantes. On peut alors se demander si ces juridictions sont assez compà ©tentes? Doivent-elles à ªtre renforcà ©es par une intervention des pouvoirs publics afin de mieux surveiller les entreprises, et de stopper toute action de Greenwashing ? Doit-on crà ©er une instance spà ©cifique au dà ©veloppement durable, pour gà ©rer ce phà ©nomà ¨ne? H2: Une intervention des pouvoirs publics est nà ©cessaire pour garantir le respect des rà ¨gles de la communication publicitaire. Dix ans aprà ¨s la signature du protocole de Kyoto en 1997 sest crà ©Ãƒ © un grand ministà ¨re de lÉcologie, de lÉnergie, du Dà ©veloppement durable et de lAmà ©nagement du Territoire. Cette mà ªme annà ©e se dà ©roula le Grenelle de lEnvironnement (octobre 2007). Ces deux actions tà ©moignent de la volontà © des pouvoirs publics de faire de lenvironnement une priorità © nationale. Lors dinterrogatoires, les Franà §ais sont nombreux à   penser que ce nest ni aux citoyens, ni aux entreprises dagir et de prendre des mesures environnementales mais bel et bien aux pouvoirs publics de rà ©glementer et dexercer un contrà ´le sur leurs propres rà ©glementations. LÉtat franà §ais a mis en place des actions de sensibilisation au dà ©veloppement durable, et exige des rà ¨gles dà ©ontologiques à   ce sujet. Il se dit prà ªt à   renforcer les contraintes et les obligations envers les entreprises, sans à ©pargner le secteur de la communication. Le parlement europà ©en est intervenu rà ©cemment sur la question de limpact du marketing et de la publicità © (avec par exemple le lien entre la maigreur des mannequins et les comportements alimentaires des adolescentes). Cette thà ©matique pourrait aboutir à   davantage de rà ©glementations, comme par exemple, un encadrement plus strict de lespace publicitaire (type affichage) ou encore laccà ¨s à   limage limità © pour des produits polluants. LÉtat doit donc rà ©glementer davantage le secteur de la publicità © tant au niveau national quau niveau europà ©en. Nà ©anmoins, il na pas pour rà ´le de contrà ´ler ce domaine car des autorità ©s telles que lARPP ou le CSA sont compà ©tentes pour cette mission. De plus, louverture de lARPP aux associations devrait se traduire par une sensibilità © accrue sur les questions environnementales et des pratiques mieux pensà ©es en amont. Si cela nà ©tait pas le cas, une intervention rà ©glementaire serait alors possible. Lhypothà ¨se H1 nest pas và ©rifià ©e. Effectivement, lÉtat a pour rà ´le dencadrer et de rà ©glementer le secteur de la communication publicitaire mais cela doit se faire sans intervention de sa part car des instances sont là   pour se charger de la bonne application de ces rà ¨gles. Nà ©anmoins, il serait judicieux pour ces instances de crà ©er un service spà ©cifique, uniquement rà ©servà © aux publicità ©s vertes, aux problà ¨mes de Greenwashing et plus largement au dà ©veloppement durable. Nous avons vu que le secteur de la communication publicitaire à ©tait rà ©glementà © et contrà ´là © par des autorità ©s compà ©tentes et que les rà ¨gles à   lencontre de toute publicità ©  «verte » mensongà ¨re sà ©taient multiplià ©es depuis ces dernià ¨res annà ©es afin de mieux surveiller toute enfreinte. On peut alors se demander quelles sont les consà ©quences à   la non obà ©issance de ces rà ¨gles pour les entreprises? Que risquent-elles? H3 : Les entreprises qui pratiquent le Greenwashing sexposent à   de lourdes sanctions. Pour và ©rifier cette hypothà ¨se, il faut dabord se demander si le Greenwashing peut-à ªtre qualifià © de  «publicità © mensongà ¨re ». Selon la dà ©finition de la publicità © mensongà ¨re, qui consiste à   cacher un à ©là ©ment du produit ou du service afin dattirer ladhà ©sion de la clientà ¨le, le Greenwashing reprà ©sente bel et bien une sorte de publicità © mensongà ¨re (ou publicità © trompeuse), car les entreprises font croire aux consommateurs potentiels ce quils ont envi dentendre. Le dà ©lit de publicità © mensongà ¨re est instantanà ©e (le caractà ¨re trompeur sapprà ©cie dà ¨s le moment oà ¹ la publicità © est communiquà ©e au public). Selon le dictionnaire permanent du Droit des Affaires,  «mà ªme sil se manifeste lors de chaque communication au public, le dà ©lit de publicità © mensongà ¨re constitue une infraction unique qui ne peut à ªtre poursuivie et sanctionnà ©e quune seule fois. » Selon les articles L. 121-6 et L. 213-1, les infractions à   la rà ©glementation sur la publicità © mensongà ¨re sont passibles des sanctions suivantes: amende pouvant aller jusquà   37 500 euros. emprisonnement dune durà ©e maximum de deux ans. Les peines annoncà ©es peuvent à ªtre cumulables ou non (selon la gravità © du mensonge ou de la tromperie) De plus le maximum de lamende prà ©vue ci-dessus peut-à ªtre portà © à   50% des dà ©penses de la publicità © constituant le dà ©lit. En cas de rà ©cidive, les plafonds des amendes diffà ¨rent. (selon la clà ©mence des magistrats). Le tribunal peut exiger de la part des parties ou de lannonceur la communication de documents utiles ou de justificatifs . En cas de refus, il est en droit de saisir ces documents, et peut prononcer des pà ©nalità ©s de retard allant jusquà   4 500 euros par jour à   compter de la date de demande des documents. En tout à ©tat de cause, la sanction de la publicità © mensongà ¨re ne peut pas à ªtre assortie de linterdiction des droits civiques. Nà ©anmoins, le ministà ¨re public, le juge dinstruction ou le tribunal saisi des poursuites peuvent tous les trois ordonner la cessation de la publicità ©: cette mesure est exà ©cutoire nonobstant toutes voies de recours. Notre hypothà ¨se est và ©rifià ©e; des sanctions importantes sont appliquà ©es si les entreprises pratiquent de la publicità © mensongà ¨re ou trompeuse. Pourtant, pour de puissantes entreprises, les montants des amendes ne reprà ©sentent que trà ¨s peu, en tout cas pas assez pour les dissuader denfreindre la rà ©glementation. On sait maintenant que les entreprises pratiquant le Greenwashing prennent des risques et sexposent à   des sanctions importantes. On peut alors se demander quels sont les risques du Greenwashing, pour les entreprises qui prennent de rà ©els engagements environnementaux? H4 : Le Greenwashing dà ©crà ©dibilise le concept du dà ©veloppement durable ainsi que les entreprises qui sengagent dans de rà ©elles dà ©marches environnementales. La tentation de pratiquer le Greenwashing est grande pour les entreprises: elles rà ©pondent aux attentes des consommateurs en communiquant sur ce quils veulent entendre: qualità © du produit, à ©thique de lentreprise qui se dit irrà ©prochable du point de vue social et environnemental. Comme on la vu ci-dessus, ces pratiques qualifià ©es de  «verdissement frauduleux » sont dangereuses pour les entreprises malhonnà ªtes. Mais le danger le plus inquià ©tant se trouve au niveau du concept en lui-mà ªme. En effet, en le manipulant, les entreprises frauduleuses le vident de sa substance, renforà §ant ainsi la mà ©fiance, voire la dà ©fiance, des publics face à   linstitution. Certains consommateurs voient dà ©jà   à   travers le concept du dà ©veloppement durable une pure manipulation des entreprises pour se dà ©culpabiliser et se blanchir tout en assurant leurs ventes. Cette manià ¨re de penser est trà ¨s inquià ©tante quand on sait que certaines entreprises sont exemplaires dans leur politique environnementale, et que leur dà ©marche est plus que rà ©elle. Pour ces entreprises modà ¨les, le Greenwashing est dà ©sastreux en terme dimage. Beaucoup de ces entreprises trouvent dangereux de vouloir communiquer à   tout prix sur leurs engagements pris en faveur du dà ©veloppement durable. Cest pourquoi peu dentre elles communiquent à   ce sujet. Cest le cas des hypermarchà ©s  «Cora », engagà ©s depuis le dà ©but des annà ©es 90 dans une và ©ritable politique en faveur du dà ©veloppement durable. Lentreprise na jamais voulu communiquer à   ce sujet. Ces entreprises comme  «Cora «Ã‚ », pensent que la confiance est perdue dà ¨s quil y a exagà ©ration ou arrogance: elles limitent volontairement leur communication mà ªme si pour beaucoup dentre elles, le dà ©veloppement durable reprà ©sente un acte fort de management. Pour certains annonceurs,  «parler denvironnement ne peut que faire du bien à   lenvironnement ». Dans un sens, ils ont raison car grà ¢ce à   cette mà ©diatisation, la plupart des Franà §ais connaissent à   prà ©sent le dà ©veloppement durable et savent mà ªme le dà ©finir correctement. Pourtant, si des entreprises communiquent sur leurs engagements de dà ©veloppement durable, sans quaucune mesure ne soit prises en parallà ¨le, elles parlent bel et bien de respect de lenvironnement , tout en continuant à   le polluer autant quavant. De plus ce trop-plein dinformation prà ©sente à ©galement un cà ´tà © pervers. Gà ©nà ©ralement, ces informations sont donnà ©es sans explication, sans mode demploi, hors contexte, de manià ¨re incomplà ¨te voire mà ªme contradictoire. Cette vague dinformations à   outrance est contre- productive, et peut mà ªme conduire à   un  «ras-le-bol » gà ©nà ©ral des discours à ©cologiques. Face aux entreprises, qui, comme on la vu, ne communiquent que peu, il y a des entreprises, qui elles, au contraire, vont se venter de leurs produits respectueux, de leurs soucis environnementaux. En rà ©sumà ©, certaine communiquent à   outrance sur leurs faux engagements, tandis que dautres , honnà ªtes et engagà ©s, se tairont. Alors, qui ment? Qui dit la và ©rità ©? Qui se prà ©occupe vraiment de la planà ¨te? Qui se donne une image de bon samaritain alors quil ne lest pas? Le Greenwashing sà ¨me le dà ©sordre et le doute dans la tà ªte des consommateurs. On peut alors se demander quelles sont les consà ©quences du Greenwashing pour les consommateurs? Ont-ils conscience de ce phà ©nomà ¨ne vert frauduleux? H5 : Le Greenwashing renforce la mà ©fiance des consommateurs vis à   vis de lhonnà ªtetà © des entreprises. Certaines publicità ©s vont à   lencontre du concept de dà ©veloppement durable. Le phà ©nomà ¨ne de Greenwashing est loin dà ªtre marginal. 64% des grandes entreprises dà ©clarent mettre en avant  «souvent » ou  «de temps en temps » des arguments sociaux et environnementaux dans leurs communications. Certaines entreprises se disent » vertes » alors que la nature mà ªme de leur produit est en contradiction totale avec le respect de lenvironnement (exemple des entreprises automobiles, des laboratoires de produits chimiques ou encore des socià ©tà ©s pà ©trolià ¨res). Ces pratiques ont des impacts certains, comme linstauration du doute et de la confusion sur ce qui est vraiment à ©cologique et ce qui ne lest pas. Ces impacts, non nà ©gligeables, vont à   lencontre du concept de dà ©veloppement durable. On peut en rà ©pertorier trois principaux: lincitation à   lutilisation excessive de ressources et/ou dà ©nergie. Les publicità ©s nous encouragent au gà ¢chis. Par exemple, plusieurs marques de lessive encouragent les enfants à   se salir comme bon leur semblent, en insistant sur la facilità © à   faire disparaà ®tre les tà ¢ches. En tenant ce discours, ces publicità ©s encouragent les personnes à   multiplier les cycles de lavage en machine et ne tiennent pas compte des impacts que cela peut avoir sur lenvironnement. le fait de dà ©laisser un produit au profit dun autre, à   plus fort impact nà ©gatif sur la nature. Lexemple qui illustre le mieux cet impact est celui de la publicità © de Cristalline en fà ©vrier 2007, qui tenait le discours suivant:  « Qui prà ©tend que leau du robinet a toujours bon goà »t, ne doit pas en boire souvent! » La marque nous incite à   consommer de leau en bouteille, alors que leau du robinet est dune grande qualità ©, des plus contrà ´là ©es et offre une meilleure à ©quation environnementale que leau en bouteille. La ville de Paris et la socià ©tà © de gestion des eaux parisiennes ont portà © plainte contre la marque. la banalisation ou le dà ©ni denjeux environnementaux. Ainsi, la marque Diesel sortit en 2007 une publicità © montrant une gamme de và ªtements spà ©cialement adapter au rà ©chauffement du climat, et reprà ©sentant cette adaptation , face au climat , joyeuse et facile. Le constat est alarmant; en France, selon une à ©tude effectuà ©e par lARPP et lADEME, sur les 17 129 visuels publicitaires analysà ©s dans le cadre de là ©tude, 508 messages ont un lien avec lenvironnement. Sur ces 508 messages publicitaires, 62 ont fait dà ©bat et 30 ont posà ©s problà ¨mes. Lutilisation du thà ¨me environnemental dans la publicità © a à ©tà © multiplià © par 3 en un an. V/ Plan provisoire Introduction: Rappel sur lurgence de lapplication du concept de dà ©veloppement durable à   tous les niveaux et dans tous les domaines. I/ Le concept de dà ©veloppement durable: une obligation pour chacun A/ Au niveau des citoyens (par exemple le tri sà ©lectif) B/ Au niveau des pouvoirs publics et des États ( engagements à   respecter tels que le protocole de Kyoto) C/ Au niveau des entreprises ( la RSE, la loi NRE) II/ Les dà ©rives du concept: Surmà ©diatisation, phà ©nomà ¨ne de Greenwashing A/ Les causes de ces dà ©rives. B/ Les consà ©quences du verdissement dimage. III/ Le contrà ´le des dà ©rives A/ Les rà ¨glementations obligatoires en terme de communication publicitaire. B/ Les autorità ©s en charge du contrà ´le de la publicità ©. C/ Les sanctions du non respect du dispositif rà ©glementaire. Conclusion: Que faut-il mettre en p

Discrimination In The English Language

Discrimination In The English Language There exists national and racial discrimination in the English language. Such kind of discrimination can be reflected by words, expressions and also proverbs. This linguistic phenomenon has profound historical and cultural background, reflects national bias, conflicts and hatred, and thus provides us information about historical relationships among nations. This paper analyses causes and connotations of national and racial slurs, and shows the potential negative effects of the slurs on international contacts. It also deals with the current state of linguistic discrimination in modern society and the efforts people make to eliminate the phenomenon. Language primarily functions as the communication tool and information transmitter, and is closely linked to ethnic. Every ethnic group in this world has its own language which may be either slightly or totally different from other groups. Language is the carrier of ethnic history and social culture, and evolves together with the society where it is used. So to speak, the development of the ethnic is the fundamental cause and basic condition of the development of the language. Since language and ethnic are so profoundly interrelated, it is no wonder that language is influenced by ethnic feelings and the latter are fully embodied in the former. 1.2 National and racial discrimination in the English language As a common social phenomenon, national and racial discrimination against other ethnic groups would inevitably exert influence on languages. Thus, slurs come into being in almost every language in the world. Among these languages, English is a particularly striking example which contains many national and racial slurs. It is clearly seen that in the English language, part of its large vocabulary is concerned with nations and races. Unpleasantly, this part often carries a connotation of national and racial discrimination. We can readily find slurs with various forms such as vocabulary, phrase, address, proverb, etc. Take the Dutch idioms for example. If a person says to you, you do beat the Dutch (Liu, 2003:131), he intends to mean that you are excellent. When people use the Dutch idioms, they may wonder how those idioms originate. In fact, the slurs in the English language have profound historical background. Though causes of slurs are rather complicated ¼Ã…’yet we can still sort out them. Among these complex causes, ethnocentrism, wars and racial differences are the most important ones. 1.3 Objectives of the study The study focuses on the phenomenon of national and racial discrimination in the English language. We will look into the reason why the slurs come into being and the connotations that they carry. Once we get a better idea of their connotations, we can know whether it is proper to use them in public. Hence, we can try to avoid misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication and improve our competence. Since there are so many slurs in English, we have to be very careful about them. We may wonder about the following questions. What consequence would they cause when used improperly? Are they still used frequently in daily life? Or are they going to fade out from the English language? 2. Causes of national and racial slurs in the English language 2.1 Obsession of ethnocentrism in the United Kingdom and United States In Oxford Advanced Learners English-Chinese Dictionary, ethnocentrism is based on the ideas and beliefs of one particular culture and using these to judge other cultures. (Hornby Wehmeier, 2004:580) Strong sense of national pride is one of the main causes of national discrimination. A nation with ethnocentrism believes in the superiority of its own culture including values, norms, languages, etc., and considers other nations as inferior to it. Since National feelings are closely interlinked with national language, national discrimination finds expression in the latter. The USA and the UK are considered to be very proud nations. We can tell ethnocentrism from the two countries names. (Jiao, 2009:57) The USA is short for the United States of America. Despite the fact that the word America stands for the whole continent including Canada and Mexico, the USA employs it as a component of its country name. When people say Americans today, they generally refer to the people of the USA and exclude Canadian and Mexican. The British is no less proud than the Americans. They used to claim their country to be the empire on which the sun never sets and the mistress of the seas (Mao, 2003:141) The full name of its nation is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The British prefer to call their country Great Britain. The UK is actually a small country but it is the only country around the world using great in its countrys name. Some proverbs in English are the authentic portrayal of the excessively proud mind of the British. For instance, the English are a nation of shop-keepers; all countries stand in need of Britain, and Britain of none; one Englishman can beat three Frenchmen. (Mao, 2003:143) From these proverbs, we can see this island country is completely indulged in self-admiration. It assumes that whatever in its country is good and useful while those in other countries are odd. More often than not, it despises other countries especially those once at war with it such as France and the Netherlands. Even two of the world major powers, Russia and the United States cannot escape the fate of being derided. As the proverb says, An American will go to hell for a bag of coffee. Scratch a Russian, and you will find a tarter. (Jiao, 2009:59) Ethnocentrism endows the English language with a predilection towards the UK and the USA, and a bias against other nations or races. An excess of national pride glorifies a country while shows contempt for the virtues of other countries. In reality, it is fair to say that any ethnic group in the world is likely to show undue pride of nationalism of various degrees, consciously or not. Nonetheless ¼Ã…’ethnocentrism negatively affects international relations and goes against peaceful coexistence. 2.2 National resentment caused by wars Historical events have undoubtedly made their contribution to the development of English lexicology. New expressions often emerge from times of war when national emotion is running high. In most cases, they continue to stay in the language in the process of social development even if hundreds of years have passed. The French and Dutch expressions and proverbs are the classic examples. From a geographical perspective, France faces the United Kingdom across the English Channel. From 1377 to 1453, France and England were engaged in wars over territory and economic benefit. (Dai, 2003) The hundred-year war ended in a victory for France. This certainly gave rise to resentment from Englishmen toward France. English people found expression for their hatred in the English vocabulary. They considered the word French as a derogatory one and created many terms containing the word. Even today, we can still see the French expressions usually used as pejorative in the English language. For instance, the proverb one Englishman can beat three Frenchmen means defeating enemy troops with a force inferior in number. Some French phrases are connected with sex and eroticism. A French postcard/novel (Hou, 2009:64) is a pornographic photo/book. French gout (Hou, 2009:64) is syphilis. Not only the term French but also Dutch fall into this category. Dated back to 16th century, England had been friendly with the Netherlands. It was not until the 17th century that the Netherlands became one of the largest colonial empires in the world and a strong competitor of England for maritime trade. (Dai, 2003) It was inevitable that growing commercial rivalry between England and the United Netherlands led to the outbreak of wars. There were three Anglo-Dutch Wars fought in the 17th century. After the wars, the United Kingdom of Great Britain achieved maritime supremacy. Due to the wars, hostility persisted for years between the two countries. Many Dutch expressions and proverbs represent English feelings toward the Dutch. For instance, Dutch comfort/consolation (Liu, 2003:131) means no comfort/consolation at all. If something is double Dutch (Liu, 2003:131) to a person, he can hardly understand it. 2.3 Racial differences The majority of Native English speakers are white people. White racists consider their ancestry is sacred and of higher quality than others. They believe that their race possesses absolute and remarkable superiority when compared to others. As a consequence, they disparage other races in the world. This kind of emotion can be called racial discrimination and is sufficiently reflected in the English language. People can name racial slurs, many of which are related with African Americans, Native Americans and Asians. Expressions and proverbs containing such words as Negro, nigger and Indian often carry a connotation of contempt. Particularly in the American English, we can recognize the serious racial discrimination phenomenon. The United States is described to be a big melting pot, into which immigrants from all around the world have come together and blended their cultures and traditions. People of different nationalities, races, colors and faiths inhabit in the same community, contacting, influencing and integrating mutually. Altogether, they create a dynamic, multi-ethnic, and multi-cultural society, and make their specific contribution to the American history. Yet ¼Ã…’this predominantly white country has been faced with racial contradictions and conflicts throughout its history. Strong hostility and prejudice between different racial groups, mostly the white and the colored, has resulted in racism in the English language and led to a rapid increase of discriminatory vocabulary. 2.4 National traits From the micro point of view, it is a common practice among people to remark on others physiological features, and make fun of them about their looks, shapes, and dressing. In a broad perspective, one ethnic group may tease another about its distinctive physiological feature which appears to be strange. It is conceivable that national traits (physiological features and characters) can also be a source of slurs in the English language. It is not surprising that Japanese, smaller in stature than the westerner ¼Ã…’get the nickname little-yellow-man (Liu, 2003:129) from the Americans. The Russians are nicknamed polar bears (Liu, 2003:129) because on one side part of Russia is located in the cold Arctic Circle, where polar bears often haunt, and on the other the Russians had a reputation for being strong and aggressive. Although these make sense, making fun of others about their distinctive traits is improper ¼Ã…’inconsiderate and even cruel after all. From the perspective of nation, every ethnic group is unique in its traits due to the interactions of heredity, environment and other factors. A nation is inclined to discriminate others on condition that it assumes its traits are better than any other nations. It is unfair and wrong to measure other nations by the standard of ones own nation. 2.5 Spatiotemporal differences Owing to spatiotemporal differences, countries face different environments which affect their knowledge about others. Therefore, the lack of knowledge of other areas would give rise to wrong interpretations and misunderstandings of people in those areas. Sometimes a countrys geographical backgrounds can become a popular topic and laughingstock to other countries. We may have heard the saying, Finland is the devils country (Mao, 2003:143) and wondered about its origin. As is known, Finland is situated at high latitudes of northern hemisphere with cold climatic conditions. The special geographical location leaves an impression on the English-speaking people that Finland is uninhabitable and only devils dare live there. In the English language, Chinese puzzle (Mao, 2003:142) refers to a complicated thing or problem. The phrase stems from the history when America and China had little contact. The Americans felt confused about China and had a poor understanding of the country. Hence, it is imaginable that they attached a sense of complexity to the word Chinese. 3.Words ¼Ã…’expressions and proverbs mirroring ethical prejudice In what way can words, expressions and proverbs reflect national and racial discrimination? From the point of modern English lexicology, there are four common tendencies of semantic change in words: restriction of meaning (specialization), extension of meaning (generalization), degeneration of meaning (pejoration), and elevation of meaning (amelioration). (Zhang, 1987:269) Among these four, degeneration of meaning refers to the condition that words once respectable or neutral may shift to a less respectable or even derogatory meaning. (Zhang, 1987:277) This is the most common method used in linguistic discrimination. For instance, the Dutch idioms in Chapter 3.1.1 have derogatory meanings because the word Dutch is degraded into negative sense. In English, there are so many idioms concerned about ethical prejudice that it would be difficult to cover all of them. Let us have a look at some of them from two broad categories. 3.1 Reflection of national discrimination Before moving on, I would like to state that all the idioms in the following paragraphs come from On National Prejudice in Language by Liu Baojun except those with special interlinear notes. 3.1.1 The Dutch idioms There are many Dutch expressions in English. We probably have heard or said them in daily life. However, we may have little idea about when they were first used and how they came into being. Dutch is explained by the unpleasant associations of certain historical events, namely, the Anglo-Dutch wars and rivalry at sea in the seventeenth century. Many of the Dutch expressions were first used in England at that time, during fierce naval competition between England and the Netherlands. British people used Dutch to refer to something bad. Now, of course, the British and the Dutch have a friendly relation. But the word Dutch is still used in almost the same way as it once was long time ago. The Dutch idioms can be classified into several types. First of all, some of the Dutch expressions are related to wine because the Dutch were regarded as bibber. The phrase Dutch courage is a slang term for courage gained after drinking alcohol. It is synonymous with liquid courage. The term is purported to have its origin in the battles of the seas. (Liu, 2003:131) It is said that the Dutch navy feared all other navies especially the English navy. It was rationalized that they must have drunk alcohol before battle to relieve their fear. A Dutch bargain or Dutch agreement, which is made between men who have drunk too much alcohol, is an uneven, one-sided deal. When the host is the first to get drunk in the party, it can be called a Dutch feast. Second, the British used to consider the Dutch very stingy about money. The Dutch always split the bill when whey went out for dinner. Based on this conception, Dutch treat referred to a dinner at which the invited guests should pay for their own share of food and drinks. A Dutch party is a party to which each guest contributes some food and drink. Today, Dutch treat has a slightly different meaning from that. When friends go out to have fun, each person pays his own share if they agree to Dutch treat or go Dutch. Third, in the eyes of the British, the Dutch were rude, irritable and weird. To get ones Dutch up is to flare up. To do a Dutch act means to commit suicide. If a person talks to you in a very severe way, he is talking like a Dutch uncle. This phrase emerges for the reason that the Dutch had a reputation for raising their children in a firm way. (Li, 2009:52) Not only expressions but also proverbs can convey national slurs. The Dutch has taken Holland can be interpreted as follows: a man who has seen little regards many things as strange and comment excitedly on a commonplace thing out of inexperience. However, people using these expressions may not be well aware that they are hurting the Netherlands national pride. Almost all the Dutch phrases contain negative connotation. The situation makes the Netherlands feel uncomfortable and low national respect. Thus, in 1934, Netherlands government commanded that officials should avoid use the word Dutch. (Hou, 2009:65) In spite of the effort, today the derogatory sense of the word still exists and people continue using it to refer to something negative. 3.1.2 The French idioms In the modern history of the world, France and the Great Britain rival each other in political, economic, cultural and military competition. Many British idioms have recorded the countrys discord with the French. French leave is an abrupt and unannounced departure without saying farewell to the host. The phrase can be traced back to 18th century. (Wang, 1999:45) From the view of character, the French were amiable and easygoing by nature. It was their custom that guests invited to dinner would depart without giving thanks or saying farewell to their host. To the British, in particular the English, whose reputed quality is reserved, leaving without saying goodbye is ill-mannered, discourteous and shows no respect for others. There goes the proverb when the Ethiopian is white, the French will love the English. In reality, The Ethiopians are dark-skinned and it is impossible that their skin will turn white. By using this logic analysis, neither is it possible that the French will love the English. The proverb implies that the state of hostility between the two countries would not end. Another proverb goes, The Italians are wise before the deed, the Germans in the deed, the French after the deed. (Jiao, 2009:59) By comparing France with another two countries, the idiom carries a message that the French are wooden-headed and witless. Historically, it was suggested by the Americans that some of the French expressions should be changed. Yet ¼Ã…’it was too early to be cheerful for the French. Here goes the story. In the first half of the year 2003, France opposed the plan shock and awe adopted by the American-led United Nations forces toward Iraq. This stirred up American disgust toward the French. A television host of FOX news, one of the American news media, called for a boycott of French goods. It was demanded that in the English language French toast and French fry should be changed into freedom toast and freedom fry while French leave should be reserved. (Du, 2005:23) Very interestingly, it seemed that the Americans wanted to keep the French expressions with derogatory sense and meanwhile discard others with neutral meaning. In such case, The French could do nothing but sulk. 3.1.3 The Chinaman/Chinese idioms In modern times, China cut off itself from the outside world. As a result of a seclusion policy in foreign relations, China lost an opportunity for development and fell behind. Thus, the western countries showed contempt to this poor and backward nation with weak comprehensive power. Chink and Chinaman have long been used as disparaging terms for the Chinese. Many figures of speech in the English reflected a history of Chinese being insulted. Chinamans chance essentially means an extremely slim chance or no chance at all for someone to accomplish his goal or successfully do an action. In 1978, American publisher Scribner published the novel Chinamans chance by Ross Thomas. Regardless of the content of the novel, people sought the origin of the title Chinamans chance. The historical context of the phrase dates from the goldrush days of California in the middle of the 19th century when many Chinese came here to work as laborers. (Jiao, 2009:58) Their job was demanding and very dangerous but lower-paying. The Chinese faced higher taxes, denial of citizenship and equal rights to white man. Chinamans chance truly depicts the hard life of Chinese in that city. Another expression occurred in the same period. To play someone for a Chinaman is to treat him as a fool. Many of the Chinese expressions heard in English are used as pejorative. A Chinese copy is an exact copy of an original. Chinese slavery means virtual slavery. Chinese compliment is used to describe a man who speaks one way and thinks another. Chinese fire drill refers to confusional and chaotic state, large but ineffective exercise, or the act of a group of individuals achieving nothing. If someone has Chinese restaurant syndrome (Wang, 1999:43), he may feel headache, vomiting, swirl or sweating caused by eating Chinese food that contains monosodium glutamate. Research suggests that there is no evidence of the so-called Chinese restaurant syndrome and it is nothing more than urban legend. 3.1.4 The Irishman and Irish idioms The United Kingdom is made up of four nations England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Of these four nations, the English people account for the majority of the population and feel most British. They have a strong sense of national pride and ridicule the rest of the kingdom. They would verbally attack Scotland, Wales, and in particular Ireland. We can take a look at some of the Irishman and Irish phrases. Irishmans dinner/feast actually means apastia. Irishmans promotion represents demotion. Irish diamond is not diamond at all. It is just crystal or stone. Irish evidence is seen as perjury. Irish compliment is backhanded compliment. If someone makes an Irish bull, he provides a paradoxical statement. To get ones Irish up (Hou,2009:64) means to lose ones temper. A similar expression is to get ones Dutch up. There are also Irish proverbs with offensive implications: Englands difficulty is Irelands opportunity; Put an Irishman on the spit, and you can always get another to baste him. (Mao, 2003:143) 3.1.5 The Welsh idioms The word Welsh shares the same fate of Irish. To Welsh is to repudiate a debt. According to English people, the phrase originates from 19th century when many Welsh people made a living by betting on horse racing. (Liu, 1999:79) They were said to have been extremely cunning because they always tried to get out of paying money when they lost the bet. Thus, in the eyes of English people, they became notorious for such a bad quality. Therefore, to Welsh on somebody is to go back on ones word. To Welsh on ones debt is to rat on ones debt As we know, England is a relatively rich nation when compared with Wales. Phrases like Welsh comb and Welsh carpet are used by the English people to mock at Welsh poverty. 3.1.6 The Greek idioms The word Greek is associated with trick, cattiness, and danger. Greek gift can not be interpreted literally. If a person receives a Greek gift, he should be cautious because the gift is given with the intention of tricking the recipient and causing harm to him. A proverb derives from this expression, I fear the Greeks, even when they come with the gifts. Greek trust indicates unreliability. When Greek meets Greek, and then comes the tug of war. It means that when enemies face each other, their eyes blaze with hate. Fires are rekindled between the two sides and old wounds opened up again. When people encounter something incomprehensible, they would say it is all Greek to me to show that they dont understand at all. 3.2 Reflection of racial discrimination 3.2.1 Discrimination against Native American Before starting this part, I want to make it clear that all the idioms below come from On English Language against Non-English Nationalities by Mao Fasheng except those with special notes. An Indian giver refers to a person who gives a gift but require something in return later. This expression originates from around 1765 and the American colonial days. (Li, 2009:57) To the early American Indians, gifts were simply form of trade goods. A person gave a gift in hope of something of equivalent in return. However, to the European settlers, such kind of custom appeared to be insulting. In their minds, gifts were freely given rather than for trade practices. The original meaning of the expression was only the expectation of a gift in return. By the late 1800s, its sense shifted to describe someone who demands return while giving. Indian giving is a similar terms used to satirize the giver. We should handle an Indian gift with caution as well as Greek gift. The present is given by someone with expectation of receiving another from us. An Indian sign is a magic spell cast on a person to control him or bring him bad luck. If a girl is able to put or have an Indian sign on a boy, then she fascinates him perhaps with her dazzling loveliness. Americans regarded the Indians as dumb, irritable and evil-minded. Terms like cigar-store Indian, dumb Indian, wooden Indian portray a negative image for the Indians as boring and foolish. To get ones Indian up is to get mad or be inflamed with rage. It shares the same meaning as two other figures of speech get ones Dutch up and get ones Irish up. The proverb The only good Indian is a dead Indian (Liu, 2003:131) characterizes the American relationship with Indians. 3.2.2 Discrimination against African-American In American history ¼Ã…’African-Americans were subject to discrimination and their life were sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation. They were faced with poor living conditions and harsh working environments. Being despised, hated, disgraced and oppressed by racists, they lived in misery and suffering. Even today, in the society of more advanced civilization, the phenomenon of racial discrimination still exists. Racism is still a sensitive and serious issue that the world seeks to solve. From the view of language, racial slurs are to be found everywhere. Nigger, niggra, niggruh and Negro (Jiao, 2009:57) are common slavery-imposed epithets with evident insult to the black. They remind people the bitter period of slavery when African-Americans struggled for freedom. To work like a negro/nigger refers to somebody who works or is forced to work very hard just like a slave. Even in literature, we can see racial slurs in world-famous works. For example, some African-Americans complained about the novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain. They claimed that the writer should not have used the word nigger in the book. The following dialogue, in particular, stirs up strong discontent amongst African-Americans. Good gracious. Anybody hurt? Nom killed a nigger. Well, its lucky because sometimes people do get hurt.  [1]   We should try not to get involved in the issue of racial discrimination; otherwise we may place ourselves in criticism and trouble. In 1999, David Howard, the aide of Washington, DC mayor Anthony Williams resigned after being accused of using a racial slur.  [2]  Mr. Howard, head of the Office of Public Advocate, used the word niggardly when delivering the budget report in one of the regular meetings by municipal government. As a matter of fact, niggardly is defined as stingy or ungenerous and does not have any racial connotations. Yet, staff members present which was made up of two blacks and another white were offended by the word. Soon after the meeting, the rumor began to spread that Howard had used the racial slur nigger. Howard said such rumor has severely compromised my effectiveness as the Districts Public Advocate and in the best interest of my office, I resigned.  [3]  Howard was innocent in this issue. The real problem is that niggardly has a similar pronunciation with nigger. An important lesson we can learn out of this is that people especially government officials should avoid using not only racial slurs but also words sounding similar to them. 4. Negative effects of linguistic discrimination 4.1 Verbal counterback in other languages against English slurs Linguistic discrimination in English would surely result in verbal attack from those countries that have been insulted by English-speaking countries. It is normal to find ethnic slurs in other languages than English. For instance, in the French language, les sombikes (Liu, 1999:81), which has the same meaning as son of a bitch in the English language, is used as a disparaging term for an American. The phrase dates from the First World War when American soldiers liked to shout the expletive son of a bitch. As a matter of fact, almost any language contains ethnic slurs. It may be just to say that any ethnic in the world is apt to glorify its own group and meanwhile look down upon others. This sense of national superiority, more or less, is reflected in the language. 4.2 Negative impact on international relations Based on numerous historical events, linguistic discrimination against other nations and races mirrors barriers, conflicts, and hatred between different ethnic groups. It is a social problem that cannot be neglected. The usage of slurs can be detrimental to international relations. It exerts negative impact on social equity, stability and harmony. History teaches us that it has clearly influenced national unity and integrity in such a country of great ethnic complexity as America. As long as inter-ethnic inequality and contractions exist in human society, they would find expression in the language. Conversely ¼Ã…’linguistic discrimination would trigger hostility and conflicts between ethnics. They together initiate a vicious cycle and people get trapped in it. 5. State of English linguistic discrimination in modern society 5.1 Common existence of English linguistic discrimination It is undeniable that the phenomenon of English linguistic discrimination is still very common in modern society. People use those idioms in daily life, consciously or not. They may say a slur without recognizing that it is offensive and may cause them trouble. Why are discriminatory language still used today even if hostilities ended hundreds of years ago? As is discussed in chapter 1.1, language develops and evolves with society. Once words are given derogatory meanings, it would be difficult to change or eliminate them. It often happens that language is more conservative than civilization, material as well as moral. Objects, institutions, ideas, scientific concepts change in the course of time; yet in many cases the name is retained and thus helps to ensure a sense of tradition and continuity. (Ullmann 1977:198) 5.2 Sign of improvements on the phenomenon Fortunately, we have seen evidence of improvements on the phenomenon of national and racial discrimination in the English language. For example, In the September of 2001, the mountain Chinks Peak in the Pocatello Range in Idaho State got its new official name Chinese Peak from the United States Board of Geographic Names. The original name Chinks Peak was deemed offensive and racist. Some people especially Chinese Americans strongly requested th